Top 10 Direct Air Capture Companies Shaping Carbon Removal in 2026

1. Introduction

Overview of the Global Direct Air Capture Industry

The Top Companies in the Direct Air Capture Industry are moving DAC from laboratory-scale carbon separation toward modular plants, industrial carbon supply, and permanent geological storage. The International Energy Agency reports that 27 DAC plants have been commissioned across Europe, North America, Japan, and the Middle East, although most remain small-scale installations. The technology operates on an unusually dilute feedstock because atmospheric carbon dioxide is measured in hundreds of parts per million rather than the percentage-level concentrations encountered in industrial exhaust. Commercial applications now include geological sequestration, synthetic fuels, greenhouse enrichment, beverage-grade CO₂, construction materials, and durable carbon-removal credits. Climeworks' Mammoth plant alone has a design nameplate capacity of 36,000 tonnes annually, demonstrating the industry's transition toward facilities measured in tens of thousands of tonnes.

Operational maturity varies sharply across the industry. Climeworks' Orca contains 8 collector containers, each rated at 500 tonnes annually, while Heirloom's California facility has a capacity of 1,000 tonnes per year. Mission Zero deployed its first 50-tonne-per-year system in 2023 and added 2 systems rated at 250 tonnes per year in 2025. Airhive subsequently demonstrated a 1,000-tonne-per-year system in Alberta. These deployments show that DAC remains an early industrial technology rather than a standardized global commodity. Competition is therefore based not only on total capture capacity but also on sorbent chemistry, regeneration energy, equipment modularity, water requirements, manufacturing repeatability, carbon-storage access, utilization pathways, and verified operating hours.

Market Evolution and Growth Drivers

Direct air capture progressed from experimental systems to commercial operation during the 2010s and 2020s. Climeworks, founded in 2009, commissioned a 50-tonne-per-year industrial unit in 2014 and began operating its Hinwil commercial project in 2017. Orca followed in 2021 with a 4,000-tonne annual design capacity, while Mammoth started its operational ramp-up in May 2024 at up to 36,000 tonnes annually. The industry is now moving another scale level: 1PointFive's STRATOS facility in Texas is designed for up to 500,000 tonnes of CO₂ per year, and its 65-acre site represents a shift from modular demonstration plants toward full industrial infrastructure integrated with Class VI geological storage.

Policy, engineering improvements, corporate procurement, and storage infrastructure are accelerating adoption. The United States' Regional DAC Hubs program is structured around 4 domestic hubs, each capable of demonstrating pathways toward at least 1 million tonnes of annual atmospheric CO₂ capture. Canada provides an investment tax-credit rate of up to 60% for eligible DAC equipment before scheduled reductions beginning in 2031. Europe established a carbon-removal certification framework in Regulation (EU) 2024/3012, while the EU adopted a 90% net emissions-reduction target for 2040 relative to 1990. Technology developers are simultaneously improving regeneration cycles, sorbent lifetimes, automation, heat integration, air-contactor designs, digital controls, and modular manufacturing, reducing the technical barriers between experimental DAC and repeatable industrial deployment.

2. Top 5 Latest Trends in the Direct Air Capture Industry

1. Industrial-scale DAC facilities moving toward hundreds of thousands of tonnes

2. Modular and mass-manufactured DAC equipment

3. Electrochemical and low-heat regeneration processes

4. Integration of DAC with permanent geological storage

5. Expansion of DAC into industrial CO₂ utilization

Trend 1: Industrial-Scale DAC Facilities Moving Toward Hundreds of Thousands of Tonnes

The most visible trend among the Top Companies in the Direct Air Capture Industry is the increase in individual project scale. Mammoth represents a roughly 10-fold scale-up from Climeworks' 4,000-tonne-per-year Orca facility to a design nameplate capacity of 36,000 tonnes annually. STRATOS takes another step by targeting up to 500,000 tonnes per year when fully operational. Heirloom is developing Louisiana facilities planned to reach up to 320,000 tonnes annually across phases, including 17,000 tonnes in the first facility and another project starting with 100,000 tonnes of capacity. These projects are forcing DAC companies to address issues that laboratory installations cannot reproduce, including power integration, sorbent logistics, compression, pipeline specifications, water management, construction sequencing, storage permitting, monitoring, maintenance, and multi-year operating reliability.

Trend 2: Modular and Mass-Manufactured DAC Equipment

DAC developers are increasingly designing standardized equipment that can be manufactured repeatedly rather than engineering every facility as a completely custom chemical plant. CarbonCapture Inc.'s Leo platform exemplifies this approach, while Skytree is commercializing modular Stratus equipment and DAC Park configurations. Mission Zero has already moved from a 50-tonne system to 250-tonne systems, demonstrating how standardized components can support scale-out across different sites. Skytree's Stratus technology can generate as much as 1,250 kilograms of CO₂ per day in industrial-utilization applications, and its equipment has been developed for deployment in greenhouses, Power-to-X projects, beverage carbonation, and carbon removal. Modularization matters because repeatable factory production can shorten installation cycles, concentrate engineering improvements into successive hardware generations, simplify maintenance inventories, and enable incremental capacity additions rather than requiring one massive facility from the outset.

Trend 3: Electrochemical and Low-Heat Regeneration Processes

Regeneration energy has become one of the industry's most important technology-development areas because DAC must repeatedly release concentrated CO₂ from capture media after processing atmospheric air. Mission Zero uses an electrochemical regeneration process and operated 3 field systems within 2 years, giving it real-world data across UK and Canadian conditions ranging from 0°C to 35°C. RepAir Carbon is developing a solid-state electrochemical system intended for diluted CO₂ streams below 5% concentration and reports energy reductions of up to 70% compared with conventional capture approaches. Avnos takes a different route through Hybrid Direct Air Capture, integrating atmospheric water capture with CO₂ separation and low-grade waste-heat utilization. These architectures demonstrate that the competitive landscape is expanding beyond conventional high-temperature thermal regeneration toward electrical, electrochemical, moisture-responsive, and heat-integrated process designs.

Trend 4: Integration of DAC with Permanent Geological Storage

DAC is increasingly being developed as a complete removal chain rather than simply as a CO₂-separation machine. STRATOS secured Class VI well permitting in 2025, enabling captured atmospheric CO₂ to be paired with regulated saline storage. Heirloom's Louisiana projects are being developed alongside dedicated Class VI storage infrastructure, while Climeworks combines its Icelandic capture facilities with mineral storage pathways. CarbonCapture Inc. describes its carbon-removal service as permanent storage in deep saline aquifers for periods exceeding 1,000 years. This trend matters because capturing CO₂ does not automatically produce durable climate removal: the downstream destination determines whether the molecule is permanently stored, temporarily utilized, or eventually re-emitted. Monitoring, reporting, verification, injection permitting, storage liability, pipeline quality, compression, and geological characterization are consequently becoming core competitive capabilities alongside capture efficiency itself.

Trend 5: Expansion of DAC into Industrial CO₂ Utilization

Direct air capture is also developing as a distributed source of non-fossil CO₂ for industries that already consume concentrated carbon dioxide. Mission Zero has deployed systems supporting e-fuels and building-material applications, while Skytree targets greenhouse horticulture, beverages, Power-to-X, water treatment, and carbon removal. In 2025, Skytree demonstrated approximately 98% CO₂ purity directly from its Stratus Alpha DAC system and subsequently produced liquid CO₂ at 99.98% purity, above the 99.9% threshold associated with beverage-grade applications. Airhive announced a 1,000-tonne-per-year European system intended to demonstrate DAC-derived CO₂ for beverage production. These projects broaden DAC's role beyond carbon credits and geological storage by creating localized atmospheric-carbon supply chains that can reduce dependence on CO₂ recovered from fossil-fuel processing or long-distance industrial-gas transportation.

3. Top 10 Companies in the Direct Air Capture Industry

The following companies are not presented as a strict ranking. They are selected based on factors including operating experience, technology development, deployment scale, manufacturing strategy, geographic activity, industrial integration, storage capabilities, and relevance to the global DAC ecosystem.

1. Climeworks

Company Overview: Climeworks was founded in 2009 as an ETH Zurich spin-off and progressed from a 50-tonne-per-year industrial capture unit in 2014 to Orca in 2021 and Mammoth in 2024. Headquarters: Zurich, Switzerland. Core Direct Air Capture Expertise: The company specializes in modular solid-sorbent DAC using adsorption and regeneration cycles, with field experience integrating capture systems with Icelandic geological mineralization. Major Products and Services: Orca provides up to 4,000 tonnes of annual capture capacity through 8 collector containers, while Mammoth has a design nameplate capacity of 36,000 tonnes annually. Mammoth uses 72 collector containers at full build-out and remains in operational ramp-up, providing the operating data required for Climeworks' planned generation of larger DAC facilities.

2. 1PointFive

Company Overview: 1PointFive operates as an Occidental subsidiary focused on DAC, carbon removal, and geological sequestration, leveraging more than 50 years of carbon-management experience within its corporate group. Headquarters: Houston, Texas, United States. Core Direct Air Capture Expertise: Its strategy combines Carbon Engineering's liquid-sorbent DAC process with large-scale project engineering, CO₂ compression, Class VI injection, monitoring, and storage development. Major Products and Services: STRATOS occupies a 65-acre site in Ector County, Texas and is designed to capture up to 500,000 tonnes of atmospheric CO₂ annually. More than 2,500 construction workers were hired during Phase I, and more than 800 craft workers participated in an apprenticeship program, illustrating the workforce requirements emerging as DAC moves toward industrial infrastructure scale.

3. Heirloom Carbon Technologies

Company Overview: Heirloom was established in 2020 and is headquartered in Brisbane, California, United States. Its first commercial facility in San Joaquin County became operational in 2023 with 1,000 tonnes of annual removal capacity. Core Direct Air Capture Expertise: Heirloom accelerates limestone's natural CO₂ absorption cycle from years to roughly 3 days before releasing the captured gas through a renewable-energy-powered process. Major Products and Services: Its Northwest Louisiana roadmap includes a 17,000-tonne-per-year facility targeted for 2026, a 100,000-tonne phase, and a later 200,000-tonne expansion, taking the location toward 320,000 tonnes per year. The projects combine DAC with dedicated geological storage and are expected to create more than 80 permanent positions when developed.

4. Global Thermostat

Company Overview: Global Thermostat was founded in 2010 and operates its global headquarters and technology facilities in Commerce City, Colorado, United States. Core Direct Air Capture Expertise: The company uses solid sorbents arranged in low-pressure-drop contactor structures designed to extract CO₂ from atmospheric air and release a concentrated stream for storage or utilization. Major Products and Services: Global Thermostat placed its commercial-scale K-Series demonstration system into operation at the end of 2022 with capacity exceeding 1,000 metric tonnes per year. Its Colorado site includes bench-scale, pilot-scale, commercial-scale testing, laboratory capabilities, and fabrication infrastructure. This vertically integrated development environment allows the company to evaluate contactor geometry, sorbent performance, regeneration conditions, and larger plant configurations within the same engineering organization.

5. Mission Zero Technologies

Company Overview: Mission Zero was founded in 2020 and is headquartered in London, United Kingdom. The company moved from initial laboratory development to its first field plant within 3 years. Core Direct Air Capture Expertise: Its DAC process uses electrochemical regeneration designed to recover CO₂ using water, catalysts, and renewable electricity rather than relying primarily on high-temperature thermal regeneration. Major Products and Services: Mission Zero commissioned a 50-tonne-per-year plant in December 2023 and deployed 2 additional systems rated at 250 tonnes annually in 2025. During 2025 the company evaluated more than 270 suppliers and accumulated just under 7,000 hours of combined laboratory and operational data. Its systems support sustainable fuels, construction materials, and permanent sequestration applications.

6. CarbonCapture Inc.

Company Overview: CarbonCapture Inc. was founded in 2019 and is headquartered in Los Angeles, California, United States. Core Direct Air Capture Expertise: The company develops modular solid-sorbent DAC machines intended to be manufactured as repeatable units and deployed in arrays, while maintaining prototyping and test teams alongside its Los Angeles engineering organization. Major Products and Services: Its Leo Series represents its mass-manufacturing approach, while its broader offering combines DAC equipment with geological carbon-removal projects. CarbonCapture states that stored CO₂ associated with its removal service can be secured in deep saline formations for more than 1,000 years through Class VI injection pathways. This combination of modular hardware, manufacturing design, metered capture, third-party verification, and permanent storage positions the company around standardized project replication rather than one-off capture equipment.

7. Avnos

Company Overview: Avnos is a Los Angeles-based DAC technology company established during the early 2020s, with engineering activity centered on integrated carbon, water, cooling, and energy systems. Headquarters: Los Angeles, California, United States. Core Direct Air Capture Expertise: Its Hybrid Direct Air Capture platform simultaneously manages atmospheric CO₂ and water while using low-grade waste heat as an input to the integrated process. Major Products and Services: Avnos demonstrated an HDAC pilot in Bakersfield in 2023 and approved development of Project Cedar in 2025. The company's 2026 technology positioning focuses strongly on data centers and industrial infrastructure, where waste heat, cooling demand, water availability, and decarbonization can intersect. This multi-output architecture differentiates Avnos from DAC designs optimized solely for maximum CO₂ tonnage.

8. RepAir Carbon

Company Overview: RepAir Carbon was founded in 2020 and is based in Yokneam Illit, Israel, with an expanding European presence. Core Direct Air Capture Expertise: Its technology is a fully electric solid-state electrochemical separation process inspired by battery and fuel-cell architectures and developed specifically for dilute CO₂ streams. Major Products and Services: RepAir targets concentrations from atmospheric levels through industrial streams below 5% CO₂ and reports energy requirements up to 70% lower than conventional capture approaches. In 2025 the company participated in a Gulf Coast DAC hub collaboration involving major industrial partners. Its technology direction is particularly relevant to DAC because it replaces conventional thermal solvent or sorbent regeneration with electrically driven molecular separation, potentially enabling systems that respond more directly to renewable-electricity availability.

9. Airhive

Company Overview: Airhive was founded in the early 2020s in the United Kingdom and is headquartered in London. In July 2026 it acquired Dutch DAC developer Carbyon, consolidating two European technology platforms. Core Direct Air Capture Expertise: Airhive combines fluidized-bed engineering with a mineral sorbent, electric calcination, and heat recovery. Major Products and Services: Its Storm-1 system demonstrated 1,000 tonnes of annual capacity at Deep Sky Alpha in Alberta, and its Project Carpenter roadmap targets 10,000 tonnes annually from 2027. Airhive is also participating in UnionDAC, which plans a 60,000-tonne-per-year Teesside system by 2032. The Carbyon acquisition adds fast-swing thin-film sorbent expertise to Airhive's geochemical and project-development capabilities.

10. Skytree

Company Overview: Skytree was founded in 2014 in Amsterdam, Netherlands, drawing on technology expertise originating from work associated with the European Space Agency. Headquarters: Amsterdam, Netherlands, with additional offices in Toronto and Nashville. Core Direct Air Capture Expertise: Skytree focuses on standardized, modular DAC machines that can supply atmospheric CO₂ directly to end users or be combined into larger DAC Parks. Major Products and Services: Its Stratus equipment can provide up to 1,250 kilograms of CO₂ per day in applicable configurations. In 2025 the company demonstrated approximately 98% gaseous CO₂ purity and 99.98% purity after liquefaction. By 2026, Skytree's commercial deployment pipeline included greenhouse applications and plans for a Texas DAC development targeting 500,000 tonnes of annual removal capacity.

4. Regional Outlook

North America

North America currently combines the strongest large-project pipeline with substantial carbon-storage infrastructure and policy support. The United States Regional DAC Hubs program is designed around 4 hubs, each expected to demonstrate a pathway capable of at least 1 million tonnes of annual atmospheric CO₂ capture. Texas hosts STRATOS, designed for 500,000 tonnes per year, while Louisiana is emerging as another major center through Heirloom and Climeworks projects. The U.S. advantage extends beyond capture equipment: Class VI injection regulation, Gulf Coast saline formations, carbon-management engineering, pipelines, renewable-power development, and an established chemical-processing workforce can be combined within integrated DAC projects. This is particularly important because a commercial facility requires far more than an air contactor; compression, storage permitting, measurement, power procurement, construction, and long-term monitoring are equally important.

Canada provides a complementary development environment through clean electricity, geological-storage resources, industrial engineering expertise, and an investment tax credit that provides a 60% rate for qualifying DAC equipment during its initial period. Alberta has become an important technology-demonstration location: Airhive's 1,000-tonne-per-year system began operating at Deep Sky Alpha, while Mission Zero deployed a 250-tonne system in Canada and tested its technology through harsh winter conditions. Mexico has not yet developed a comparable commercial DAC cluster, making the North American landscape heavily concentrated in the United States and Canada. The regional opportunity is therefore to connect manufacturing and modular capture systems with storage hubs; the challenge remains proving high uptime, low lifecycle emissions, durable sorbents, community acceptance, and bankable operating performance at facilities far larger than today's kilotonne-scale plants.

Europe

Europe combines established DAC engineering activity with increasingly formal carbon-removal governance. The EU's Carbon Removals and Carbon Farming Certification Framework was established under Regulation (EU) 2024/3012, and the bloc adopted a legally binding headline target to reduce net greenhouse-gas emissions 90% by 2040 relative to 1990. Permanent carbon removals under the European framework are designed around storage lasting for centuries, differentiating engineered removal from short-duration carbon-management activities. Iceland remains Europe's most visible DAC deployment location through Climeworks' 4,000-tonne Orca and 36,000-tonne Mammoth facilities, while the Netherlands has become an equipment-development hub through Skytree. These conditions encourage greater attention to measurement, permanence, lifecycle accounting, renewable-energy sourcing, environmental safeguards, and independently certifiable removal rather than simple gross CO₂ capture volumes.

The United Kingdom is developing a distinct cluster around industrial decarbonization and greenhouse-gas removals. Mission Zero has operated 3 DAC systems across the UK and Canada since its 2023 first deployment, while Airhive established a Teesside pilot and joined UnionDAC with Mission Zero and Progressive Energy. UnionDAC plans a 60,000-tonne-per-year Teesside facility by 2032. The UK government's innovation programs have supported DAC and other greenhouse-gas-removal demonstrations, and the country's long-term GGR planning extends to 2050. Continental Europe also benefits from chemical engineering, industrial automation, specialty-material manufacturing, renewable electricity, and North Sea CO₂-storage development. The principal challenge is connecting capture projects to verified storage and durable demand while preventing scarce low-carbon electricity from being diverted from direct industrial electrification where emissions can instead be avoided.

Asia-Pacific

Asia-Pacific DAC deployment remains smaller than activity in North America and Europe, but the region combines major manufacturing ecosystems with growing carbon-management policy. Japan already hosts DAC demonstrations and has included engineered carbon removal within national negative-emissions research discussions, while Australia has legislated a 43% emissions reduction target for 2030 relative to 2005 and net zero by 2050. Australia's 2035 target is 62–70% below 2005 levels. These targets, together with extensive renewable-energy resources and large geological formations, create potential for future DAC-storage projects. Japan and South Korea can contribute precision manufacturing, membranes, electrochemistry, advanced sorbents, compressors, robotics, and industrial controls, while China possesses manufacturing depth that could become important if DAC hardware transitions toward high-volume standardized production.

Commercial opportunity across the region is likely to depend on applications beyond carbon credits alone. Synthetic aviation fuels, chemical feedstocks, greenhouse CO₂, minerals, and export-oriented low-carbon fuels can create additional demand for atmospheric carbon. Skytree already identifies Australia and New Zealand among deployment markets for its greenhouse-oriented systems, while the IEA has identified China as a potentially attractive DAC location under favorable future energy conditions. The key constraint is scale: the global IEA inventory counts only 27 commissioned DAC plants across Europe, North America, Japan, and the Middle East, confirming that Asia-Pacific remains at an early stage. Future regional competitiveness will depend on reliable low-carbon electricity, high-temperature or low-grade heat where required, water conditions, CO₂ transport, geological-storage characterization, policy recognition of durable removals, and supply chains capable of producing thousands of standardized modules.

Middle East & Africa

The Middle East is increasingly testing whether abundant energy infrastructure and geological-storage expertise can support DAC under hot and arid conditions. Saudi Aramco commissioned Saudi Arabia's first DAC test unit in March 2025, with a capacity of 12 tonnes of CO₂ per year and technology support from Siemens Energy. The earlier development roadmap also identified a potential larger pilot rated at 1,250 tonnes annually. Gulf-region companies possess experience in gas processing, subsurface characterization, compressors, pipelines, chemical operations, and large engineering projects, creating transferable capabilities for DAC. The regional technical challenge is environmental: high temperatures, dust, humidity variation, cooling requirements, and water scarcity can materially influence fan power, sorbent performance, process heat, equipment cleaning, and overall plant availability.

Africa is beginning to demonstrate a different DAC model based on co-locating capture technology with favorable natural resources. In Kenya, Octavia Carbon has operated prototype systems capturing about 10 tonnes of CO₂ per year each and has pursued a 1,000-tonne-per-year facility using geothermal energy and Rift Valley basalt formations for mineral storage. The IEA recorded a Kenyan DAC pilot reaching the construction stage as part of the broader 2024–2025 CCUS project pipeline. North Africa could ultimately combine solar resources, geological storage, ports, and proximity to European markets, while South Africa possesses industrial and mining expertise relevant to mineralization and carbon handling. Regional constraints include limited specialized DAC workforces, financing, transport infrastructure, storage characterization, imported equipment, water availability, and the need for credible monitoring standards across multiple jurisdictions.

5. Future Opportunities in the Direct Air Capture Industry

Future opportunities for the Top Companies in the Direct Air Capture Industry will increasingly depend on manufacturing efficiency rather than simply demonstrating that atmospheric CO₂ can be captured. The strongest technical opportunity is to reduce the number of kilowatt-hours, kilograms of sorbent, equipment modules, maintenance hours, and replacement components required per tonne removed. Mission Zero collected just under 7,000 operating and laboratory hours during 2025, illustrating how operational data can support predictive maintenance, digital process control, degradation modeling, and improved plant design. Artificial intelligence and advanced analytics can eventually optimize fan speeds, regeneration timing, sorbent loading, renewable-energy availability, temperature response, humidity response, and equipment scheduling. Advanced materials offer another pathway through higher adsorption capacity, faster cycles, longer lifetimes, reduced degradation, and lower regeneration temperatures.

Manufacturing localization will become equally important as projects move from dozens of modules toward thousands. Airhive's acquisition of Carbyon in 2026 illustrates an emerging consolidation model in which project execution, geochemical DAC, fast-swing materials science, and manufacturing expertise can be combined under one organization. Skytree is pursuing standardized equipment and DAC Park designs, CarbonCapture Inc. is developing modular machines intended for repeated production, and Climeworks is using operating experience from Mammoth to inform the next generation of plants. Partnerships with industrial-gas suppliers, renewable-energy developers, storage operators, chemical companies, automation vendors, construction groups, universities, and public agencies can reduce the number of capabilities that an individual DAC startup must build internally.

Geographic diversification represents another realistic opportunity. The IEA's tracked DAC footprint currently covers 27 commissioned plants, yet future projects are emerging in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Kenya, Saudi Arabia, and other markets. Verified policy targets—such as the EU's 90% net reduction objective for 2040 and Australia's net-zero commitment for 2050—do not guarantee DAC deployment, but they create long-term pressure to address residual emissions. The most competitive future projects are therefore likely to pair suitable climate conditions, low-carbon energy, storage geology, skilled workforces, local supply chains, clear permitting, measurable removal, and customers requiring either permanent CDR or atmospheric CO₂ feedstock. Analytical expectations should remain separate from confirmed projects because capacity announcements do not automatically translate into commissioned operating plants.

6. Conclusion

The Direct Air Capture industry in 2026 is moving from proof-of-concept engineering toward early industrialization, but its installed operating scale remains modest compared with future climate requirements. The 27 commissioned plants tracked across major regions demonstrate real technical progress, while Mammoth's 36,000-tonne nameplate capacity, STRATOS' 500,000-tonne design, Heirloom's Louisiana expansion, and new 1,000-tonne modular deployments show how quickly the engineering envelope is changing. The 5 defining trends—larger facilities, modular manufacturing, electrochemical and low-heat regeneration, permanent storage integration, and industrial utilization—are reshaping competition around measurable performance rather than laboratory claims.

The Top Companies in the Direct Air Capture Industry represent multiple technology pathways rather than one dominant design. Climeworks, 1PointFive, Heirloom, Global Thermostat, Mission Zero, CarbonCapture Inc., Avnos, RepAir Carbon, Airhive, and Skytree use different combinations of solid sorbents, liquid chemistry, minerals, electrochemistry, moisture management, modular equipment, and geological storage. Regional development is similarly differentiated: the United States is assembling million-tonne hub infrastructure, Europe is formalizing certification and permanence rules, Asia-Pacific brings major manufacturing capability, and Saudi Arabia and Kenya are demonstrating DAC under distinctly different energy and geological conditions. The strongest future opportunity is therefore not one universal machine, but increasingly standardized, energy-efficient and verifiable systems matched to the resources and end uses of each deployment location.